Faez Dinparast
Abstract
AbstractThis article critically evaluates the literature on problem statement formulation and modeling in social scienceresearch. Despite the emphasized importance of defining a research problem, many studies lack a clearproblem statement or exhibit weaknesses in its articulation. The primary challenge ...
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AbstractThis article critically evaluates the literature on problem statement formulation and modeling in social scienceresearch. Despite the emphasized importance of defining a research problem, many studies lack a clearproblem statement or exhibit weaknesses in its articulation. The primary challenge lies in the insufficientdiscussion of the nature and components of a problem statement. The study reviews existing literature topropose a coherent and practical framework for constructing a research problem. It posits that a researchproblem is an artificial construct shaped by the interplay between the researcher’s knowledge and reality,typically framed through two models: Conflict in Science (arising from discrepancies between empiricalreality and theoretical expectations) and Gap in Science (stemming from deficiencies in existing knowledge).The article demonstrates that these models share an underlying logical structure, emphasizing the researcher’sactive role in problem formulation. By analyzing the relationship between reality and knowledge, the studyprovides a systematic approach to problem articulation, addressing ambiguities in methodological discourseand offering actionable guidelines for researchers.IntroductionThe formulation of a research problem is pivotal in scientific inquiry, serving as the foundation for hypothesisgeneration, methodology selection, and knowledge advancement. However, despite its centrality,1 Associate professor of Political Science, Allameh Tabataba’i University, Dinparast@atu.ac.ir 09125857342Recived date: 2 - 6 – 2024 accepted date: 23 - 9 - 2024
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methodological literature often overlooks the operational components of problem articulation. This studyaddresses this gap by synthesizing theoretical perspectives on problem formulation, distinguishingbetween problem and question, and critiquing reductionist approaches that conflate the two. Drawing onPopper’s notion of scientific discovery and Creswell’s gap-spotting framework, the article argues that aresearch problem is a constructed entity shaped by the researcher’s engagement with existing knowledge andempirical reality. The study aims to unify fragmented discussions on problem formulation, offering astructured model applicable across social science disciplines.Materials & MethodsThe study employs a critical literature review methodology, analyzing seminal works in research methodology,philosophy of science, and social theory. Key sources include Popper (1984), Creswell (2017), and Locke &Golden-Biddle (1997), among others. Thematic analysis identifies recurring frameworks for problemformulation, particularly the Conflict and Gap models. Comparative evaluation of these models is conductedto reveal their shared epistemological foundations. Case studies from administrative and management researchillustrate practical applications of the proposed framework. The analysis integrates qualitative insights withconceptual rigor, emphasizing the researcher’s role in problem construction.ResultsTwo dominant models of problem formulation emerge:1. Conflict Model: Problems arise from contradictions between empirical observations and theoreticalexpectations (e.g., unexpected voting behavior contradicting rational choice theory).2. Gap Model: Problems stem from identified deficiencies in existing knowledge (e.g., understudiedphenomena or inconsistent findings).Both models share a common logic: they justify research by highlighting discrepancies that demandresolution. The study further reveals that gap-spotting, while prevalent, aligns with Popper’s conflict-driven logic when reinterpreted as a response to unmet scholarly expectations.DiscussionThe article challenges the dichotomy between conflict- and gap-based problem formulation, demonstratingtheir epistemological unity. By reinterpreting gaps as implicit conflicts (e.g., gaps reflect unmet expectationsfor comprehensive knowledge), the study bridges methodological divides. Practical implications includeguidelines for researchers to articulate problems through structured justification of discrepancies, whetherempirical or theoretical. Critically, the study underscores the necessity of contextualizing problems withinbroader scholarly discourse to ensure relevance and rigor. Limitations include the focus on social sciences,warranting future exploration in interdisciplinary contexts.ConclusionThis study provides a unified framework for problem formulation, reconciling conflict- and gap-basedapproaches under a single epistemological logic. By clarifying the components and justification of researchproblems, it equips researchers with tools to construct robust, methodologically sound inquiries. The findingsadvocate for reflexive engagement with existing knowledge, emphasizing problem formulation as a dynamic,iterative process central to scientific advancement.
Sayyed Mohammad Taghi Movahhed Abtahi; Khadijeh Ghorbani Sisakht; Mohamad Hasan Karimi
Abstract
Abstract This article embarks on a rigorous exploration of the interplay between transhumanism and the enduring traditions of Christianity, scrutinizing their confluence from both historical and theological vantage points. Functioning as an introduction to a broader examination—specifically, ...
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Abstract This article embarks on a rigorous exploration of the interplay between transhumanism and the enduring traditions of Christianity, scrutinizing their confluence from both historical and theological vantage points. Functioning as an introduction to a broader examination—specifically, the dialogue between Islamic theology and transhumanist ideology—this study presents a dualistic analysis of Christian responses to transhumanism. On one hand, there exists a faction of anti-transhumanist Christians who perceive transhumanism as a manifestation of atheistic philosophy and a fundamental deviation from sacred doctrines. On the other hand, transhumanist Christians advocate for the incorporation of advanced scientific and technological innovations as viable instruments through which divine promises might be actualized.In its final analysis, the article offers a reflective and forward-looking discourse on the future trajectory of religion and spirituality within the emergent transhumanist paradigm. It further introduces the compelling concepts of cyborg identity and cybernetic technospirituality, inviting readers to reconsider the boundaries between the transcendent and the technological.Keywords: transhumanism, Technology, technoscience, future, The future of religion and spiritualityIntroductionIn an era defined by rapid breakthroughs in technoscience, the transhumanist movement emerges as a bold and transformative quest to transcend the inherent limitations of human matter and mind. This movement, propelled by the ambition to enhance and refine both physical and cognitive capacities, seeks not merely an incremental progress but a liberation from the mortal contours of our species. One of the overlooked aspects of the early transhumanist movement was its relationship with religion and spirituality. In its initial stages, transhumanism was predominantly shaped by atheistic perspectives, with many proponents treating religion as a private matter, unrelated to scientific and technological advancement. However, in recent decades, new developments in cognitive science have prompted a shift in perspective among some transhumanist thinkers, giving rise to a more nuanced consideration of the potential roles of religion and spirituality in the broader context of human evolution.This study endeavors to illuminate the reshaping of religious paradigms within the transhumanist discourse, drawing upon a rich array of historical records and international scholarly analyses. Materials &Methods This study employs a qualitative meta-analysis approach. Using a qualitative content approach, a purposively selected set of articles was reviewed in depth. Key concepts and recurring themes were systematically extracted from the literature. Ultimately, the analysis of the identified concepts and themes was aimed at developing a deeper and more comprehensive understanding of the research topic. Discussion & Result Transhumanism stands as a visionary movement that seeks to liberate humanity from its innate biological constraints by leveraging the latest breakthroughs in technoscience. In its early chapter, most proponents—shaped by agnostic or atheistic perspectives—largely overlooked the religious dimensions of this paradigm. However, as the movement has matured, an engagement with faith and spirituality has become inescapable for three fundamental reasons.First, contemporary scientific studies have increasingly underscored the profound effects that religious and spiritual practices exert on both physical and mental well-being—a revelation that challenges transhumanism’s commitment to holistic human flourishing. Second, as transhumanism ventured into the public sphere, it encountered significant religious critiques that necessitated a thoughtful and measured response to preserve its social legitimacy. Third, the emergence of religious groups endorsing transhumanist ideals has opened new channels for garnering social support, thereby enriching the movement’s narrative and broadening its appeal.In embracing these intersections, transhumanism evolves into a multifaceted dialogue between cutting-edge science and timeless spiritual aspirations, inviting a deeper exploration of the human condition and the divine order.When engaging with transhumanist ideologies, Christian theologians adopt two distinct stances. One faction views transhumanism as a manifestation of humanity’s attempt to usurp the divine, interpreting its ambitions as emblematic of a profound rejection of God. To them, transhumanist endeavors—by denying principles such as the incarnation and resurrection of Jesus—symbolize a dangerous human pride and an unwarranted trespass into the realm reserved for the divine.In contrast, another group of Christians embraces transhumanism, arguing that the innovations heralded by advanced technologies are intrinsically woven into God’s plan to elevate both the physical and psychological well-being of humanity. Proponents in this camp contend that transhumanist thought bears remarkable affinities with Christian theology. They suggest that transhumanism might address eschatological themes—such as the apocalypse, resurrection, and the eventual unification of the divine and human—by offering dual pathways to human immortality through cyborg and cybernetic means.This article scrutinizes the stance of Christian proponents of transhumanism from three interrelated perspectives:Eschatological Parallelism: Some transhumanists accentuate a shared eschatological concern between transhumanist thought and the Abrahamic traditions, inferring a close ideological kinship. Yet, in doing so, they dismiss the apocalyptic elements of religious doctrine as mere illusions, offering instead a vision where transhumanist technologies represent the singular, legitimate response to existential challenges.Conception of Immortality: A second critique emerges from the transhumanist rejection of the conventional dualism of soul and body. Proponents insist that human immortality may be achieved solely through the advancements of cyborg and cybernetic enhancements, a notion that sharply contrasts with the Abrahamic promise of resurrection and the rebirth of the human spirit.Divergent Foundations: Finally, efforts to reconcile transhumanist principles with Christianity reveal an inherent leaning towards humanism and naturalism within transhumanism. This inclination runs counter to the foundational aspirations of the Abrahamic faiths, which endeavor to transcend the limits of human and natural existence in pursuit of a higher, divine order.From a transhumanist vantage, religion is undergoing a radical reinterpretation, now viewed through the prism of cutting-edge technoscience. At the heart of transhumanist ambition lies the desire to liberate humanity from its inherent limitations by harnessing advanced technological innovations. In this pursuit, proponents advocate for the emergence of a novel religious paradigm—one that fuses the common spiritual threads found in traditional faiths with a worldview firmly rooted in scientific progress. Termed by some as "technoscience-spirituality," this emergent doctrine envisions a future where technological breakthroughs not only sustain profound spiritual experiences but also underpin the pursuit of cyborg and cybernetic immortality. In contrast, religious traditions unable to reconcile with the transformative spirit of transhumanism, as illuminated by the relentless logic of Darwinian evolution, risk being rendered obsolete. Conclusion The transhumanist movement, initially marked by a conspicuous indifference to religious controversies, has gradually been compelled to engage with the realms of faith and spirituality. This evolution has been stimulated by compelling scientific research that underscores the positive impact of religiosity and spiritual practices on both physical and mental health. Furthermore, as transhumanism expanded its societal influence, it encountered robust religious critique, prompting a strategic alliance with faith communities to bolster its legitimacy. The ensuing dialogue has laid the groundwork for an integrative approach that synthesizes the insights of technoscience with the timeless wisdom of spirituality—a convergence that some forecast may herald the decline of historical religions that remain rigid in the face of metamorphic change.These critical exchanges between religious adherents and transhumanist thinkers not only illuminate the potential for a deeper convergence of belief systems but also chart a promising path for future inquiry.
Mansoureh sadat Khatami
Abstract
AbstractPsychology of religion is one of the branches of psychology that has found its placeas an official course in many prestigious universities around the world today. Thebook Introduction to the Psychology of Religion, written by Dr. Masoud Azarbaijaniand Seyyed Mehdi Mousavi Asl, is the most commonly ...
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AbstractPsychology of religion is one of the branches of psychology that has found its placeas an official course in many prestigious universities around the world today. Thebook Introduction to the Psychology of Religion, written by Dr. Masoud Azarbaijaniand Seyyed Mehdi Mousavi Asl, is the most commonly recommended book byprofessors and used by students in undergraduate and graduate levels of psychologyand Islamic psychology. In this context, during the case study of this book, severalpoints have been made on various topics to complete, correct, and make it a morepractical resource for the psychology of religion course; including accuracy indetermining religious areas to enter the discussion of the psychology of religion;correcting the titles of tables and some headings that are not in harmony with thecontent, correctly classifying the benefits of religiosity at the macro and microlevels, etc. Suggestions have also been made regarding the contents that should beincluded in a reference book for the psychology of religion, including a discussionof criticisms made against religious people and responses to them, the relationshipbetween physical and spiritual health, and introducing institutions of religiouspsychology in the world.KeywordsPsychology of religion, Islamic psychology, field of psychology, measurement ofreligiosity, connection between physical and spiritual health.Introduction
* . Assistant Professor, Institute for Interdisciplinary Quran Studies,m_khatami@sbu.ac.ir ,09125212520.Recived date: 22 ⁄ 4 ⁄ 2025Accepted date: 28 ⁄ 7 ⁄ 2025
The psychology of religion is a field that scientifically examines religious behaviorsand spiritual experiences through psychological principles. Despite global academicrecognition, this discipline faces resistance both from theologians who suspectreductionism and psychologists who question its objectivity due to researchers'personal beliefs. In the Iranian context, where religion significantly influencesmental health, this field requires further academic attention. The book "AnIntroduction to the Psychology of Religion" is widely accepted but also needsrevision and enrichment to fulfill its role effectively.Materials and MethodsThis study uses a qualitative content analysis methodology to review the structure,content, and educational framework of the textbook. Each chapter of the book wasanalyzed based on pedagogical clarity, conceptual coherence, alignment withpsychological theories, and religious integration. Comparative analysis with similartextbooks (e.g., Spilka, Wulff, Loewenthal) was also conducted. Student usabilityand academic effectiveness were taken as key criteria.Discussion and ResultsThe analysis showed that the book benefits from structured lessons, studyquestions, and religious references, enhancing engagement and relevance. However,various shortcomings were identified:Conceptual overload in chapters such as historical background and theoreticalfoundationsOvergeneralized theological domains for psychologistsAmbiguities in classification tables and the application of psychological principlesLack of coverage on critical topics such as religious criticism, spirituality-healthconnection, and global institutional research Further, the book could benefit frommore concise presentation, clearer pedagogical objectives, and structured inclusionof contemporary issues like spiritual abuse, faith and obsessive-compulsivetendencies, and instrumental versus intrinsic religiosity.ConclusionThe textbook is a foundational resource in Iranian academic psychology programs.Its structured style and educational framework make it valuable; however,enhancements are necessary to align it with global standards. Suggestions includerefining theological and psychological boundaries, updating theoretical content,including applied and critical discussions, and incorporating international insightsand institutions. The study aims to support educators and scholars in producing moreeffective and comprehensive materials in the psychology of religion.
Mohammad Amin Torabi; Masoumeh Sahraei
Abstract
AbstractThroughout history, one of the greatest intellectual and philosophical challenges humanities has faced is the question of the existence of God. With technological advancements and the emergence of artificial intelligence, an opportunity has now arisen to approach this question from a new angle, ...
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AbstractThroughout history, one of the greatest intellectual and philosophical challenges humanities has faced is the question of the existence of God. With technological advancements and the emergence of artificial intelligence, an opportunity has now arisen to approach this question from a new angle, utilizing the advanced capabilities of artificial intelligence. The research methodology of this study is applied in terms of its purpose and exploratory (simulation) in nature. In the first phase, it continued with responses from the intelligent system ChatGPT until reaching the saturation point of answers. In the second phase, using thematic analysis, each of the responses was semantically coded and placed in common themes. The findings were categorized and interpreted in four sections: philosophical, religious, perceptual, and scientific. The results indicate that, from a philosophical perspective, artificial intelligence has the capability to contemplate the concept of the existence of God. Religiously, it analyzes and interprets religious texts and concepts with precision. Perceptually, it has the ability to understand and recognize various types of experiences, feelings, and thoughtful reflections on God, analyzing and reconstructing these perception ns based on existing patterns in the data. Scientifically, it precisely presents the intersections and scientific relationships regarding existence and creation, exploration, and ultimate results.Keywords: Philosophy of God’s Existence, Proof of God’s Existence, Artificial Intelligence and God, ChatGPT Extended AbstractIntroductionThe concept of God has played a central role in shaping human civilization, whether through religious practice, ethical frameworks, or existential contemplation. Believers often argue that acknowledging a higher power confers meaning and moral direction, while skeptics challenge the coherence or necessity of such a being. Technological breakthroughs in AI now present an unprecedented opportunity to re-examine and synthesize the vast corpus of human thought around God’s existence. Specifically, ChatGPT draws upon extensive datasets encompassing philosophy, theology, history, and science, enabling the creation of structured, comprehensive answers to questions that have occupied thinkers for centuries. Yet the question remains: Does AI shed new light on the debate, or merely reorganize existing ideas? This research addresses that query by documenting ChatGPT’s responses to systematically designed prompts about God’s existence, scrutinizing the arguments produced, and evaluating how these align with or differ from traditional scholarly discourse.Materials & MethodsWe adopted an exploratory, simulation-based methodology, divided into two phases. In the first phase, a series of questions—probing both the affirmative and negative positions on God’s existence—were posed to ChatGPT in iterative rounds. The process continued until thematic saturation was verified by a panel of ten experts in philosophy, theology, and cognitive science who reviewed each AI-generated response for novelty and consistency. Once the experts deemed that no substantially new themes emerged, the data was consolidated for analysis. In the second phase, we conducted a thematic coding of the AI’s answers, labeling distinct arguments, examples, and references to philosophical and religious traditions. This coding was subjected to peer validation, ensuring that at least 70% of the experts agreed on the classification of each theme. The final dataset was then arranged into four major categories—philosophical, religious, perceptual, and scientific—and subsequently evaluated to illustrate the depth and range of AI-generated content on God’s existence.Discussion & ResultThe analysis demonstrates that ChatGPT consistently reproduces a broad array of arguments commonly found in classical philosophy, including cosmological reasoning positing a first cause, teleological claims highlighting design in nature, and moral arguments linking ethical absolutes to a divine lawgiver. Additionally, the AI presents counterpoints such as the problem of evil, the apparent redundancy of God in scientific explanations, and the diversity of religious traditions as challenges to the notion of a singular, all-powerful deity. On religious themes, the data indicates that ChatGPT can summarize doctrinal perspectives from multiple faiths, addressing concepts of God as Creator, the role of prophets, and scriptural evidence for and against the existence of a supreme being. In the perceptual domain, ChatGPT highlights personal experiences, crisis moments, and a search for spiritual fulfillment as important influences on belief in God. This includes references to cultural and social cohesion, as well as the psychological comfort that believers often derive from trusting a higher power. From a scientific standpoint, ChatGPT integrates ideas from physics, cosmology, and evolutionary biology, noting that while empirical methods can describe how reality operates, they often remain silent on why reality exists in the first place. Significantly, the AI model remains neutral, clarifying that its responses are drawn from comprehensive but ultimately human-authored sources. This neutrality underscores that any final judgment on God’s existence transcends purely algorithmic logic or data-driven aggregation of viewpoints. The result is an instructive illustration of AI’s ability to amalgamate disparate strands of intellectual tradition while reminding us that existential and spiritual truths may extend beyond the realm of computational discovery.Conclusion In summary, this research reveals that AI, particularly ChatGPT, provides valuable insights into the longstanding debate on God’s existence by assembling and articulating a wide range of arguments gleaned from philosophical texts, religious doctrines, and scientific hypotheses. The thematic diversity detected in the AI’s output illustrates both the richness of human reflection on God and the limitations of seeking absolute certainty through computational means. While ChatGPT can serve as a powerful tool for scholars and students to explore the landscape of arguments around divinity, it does not claim to resolve ultimate metaphysical queries. The study underscores the reality that questions of faith, transcendence, and meaning remain intimately personal and may resist definitive resolution by purely data-driven, logical processes. Rather, AI’s role may best be viewed as a catalyst for deeper inquiry, prompting renewed reflection and dialogue. Future research could refine AI’s capacity to contextualize theological arguments and incorporate more nuanced cultural or linguistic subtleties, yet the core insight stands: the final answer on God’s existence likely resides within the lived experience, contemplative reasoning, and open-hearted seeking of each individual.
mohammad zoleikani; Ali rezaeisharif; Hosein ghamari; ahmadreza kiani; abdollah gholamreza kashi
Abstract
The aim of this research was to investigate the the theological-psychological themes of the meaning of life in Kierkegaard's perspective. The qualitative research method of thematic analysis was used. The field of study was the translated works of Kierkegaard, and the book "The Sickness Unto Death" was ...
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The aim of this research was to investigate the the theological-psychological themes of the meaning of life in Kierkegaard's perspective. The qualitative research method of thematic analysis was used. The field of study was the translated works of Kierkegaard, and the book "The Sickness Unto Death" was selected as a purposeful sampling due to receiving the most required data. The basic themes in this research were sin, repentance, perception of God, faith, prayer, awareness of despair, imagination, self-referential, and anxiety. The organizing themes were theological teachings and psychological tools, and the Global theme was Interconnection. The meaning of life is explained in terms of interconnectedness, where there is a deep and inseparable connection between theological teachings and psychological tools. Theological teachings provide a fundamental and profound framework for understanding the existential nature of man and explaining his relationship with absolute being. Achieving an authentic life requires a conscious and continuous effort by the individual. Kierkegaard, by providing psychological tools, helps man to take firm and effective steps in the process of searching for meaning and realizing himself. Finally, Kierkegaard emphasizes the essential role of religion in finding the meaning of life. He believes that psychological tools alone cannot provide a comprehensive answer to the meaning of life, and their use without a faith-based foundation leads to despair instead of finding meaning.
Fatemeh Ahmadi; Hossain Fallahiasl
Abstract
Dawkins considers evil to be incompatible with the existence of an almighty God and absolute good, and considers it the strongest argument against the belief in God. Accordingly, he rejects theism and supports atheism. According to him, a manuscript entitled "systematic existential evil", explaining ...
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Dawkins considers evil to be incompatible with the existence of an almighty God and absolute good, and considers it the strongest argument against the belief in God. Accordingly, he rejects theism and supports atheism. According to him, a manuscript entitled "systematic existential evil", explaining that not only the traditional evil and the special events of the world, but the entire biological system is the foundation of evil. Dawkins and theists accept "existential optimism" in the sense that the world is generally good and humans should be happy and grateful to live in it. But by including "existential optimism" in the problem of "systematic evil", it can be shown that the "existential problem of systematic evil" is formulated not only against theism but also against atheism. If evolutionary processes cause pain and suffering for humans and animals, it is impossible for Dawkins to defend existential optimism; Because this issue is based on the conflict between "systematic evil" and "existential optimism". Dawkins' ontology is limited to the material world and he cannot resort to the material world to solve this problem. But the believers can answer this question by appealing to the existence of God and life after death.
Sasan Mozhdeh Shafagh
Abstract
With the emergence and expansion of modern science, questions began to arise concerning the relationship between science and religion. One fundamental question was the extent to which the narratives found in sacred texts about the creation of the world and humankind relate to the claims and theories ...
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With the emergence and expansion of modern science, questions began to arise concerning the relationship between science and religion. One fundamental question was the extent to which the narratives found in sacred texts about the creation of the world and humankind relate to the claims and theories presented in modern science. This article examines an approach that not only regards these religious narratives as being in conflict with scientific theories and explanations (particularly the theory of evolution) but also presents the creationist accounts as scientific claims that, at least in some respects, are superior to those of modern science. After briefly reviewing this approach, we will demonstrate, by considering several fundamental differences between scientific creationism and modern science, that such claims cannot be regarded as genuinely scientific. Any attempt to incorporate claims derived from religious narratives into the body of science, or to construct a parallel enterprise under the label of “science” alongside natural science, will ultimately prove unsuccessful. Ultimately, we will conclude that, from a practical standpoint, merging these domains—which appear to have distinct and separate frameworks—is neither suitable nor satisfactory.
Pegah Aghayari; Ashraf Shahmsnsouri; Hosein Enayati Hatkeluii; Hamed Naderi; Elham.S Nabavi
Abstract
In an era of rapid cultural and technological transformations, examining the coexistence and interaction among religion, science, culture, and technology has become a strategic topic in interdisciplinary studies. This article employs a conceptual analysis method and a systematic review of theoretical ...
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In an era of rapid cultural and technological transformations, examining the coexistence and interaction among religion, science, culture, and technology has become a strategic topic in interdisciplinary studies. This article employs a conceptual analysis method and a systematic review of theoretical and empirical sources to investigate the epistemological and functional differences among these four domains within modern societies. Initially, the fundamental distinctions between religion and science are explored regarding the acceptance of mystery, explanation of phenomena, belief structures, and normative judgments. Subsequently, culture is analyzed as a context for interaction or conflict between these two domains. Technology is also examined as a transformative force in human spiritual and social life, with an emphasis on its ethical and secular implications. In the applied section, a comparative analysis of a regional case study concerning the determination of lunar months in Islamic countries that are members of MABIMS is conducted, focusing on how scientific, cultural, and religious institutions interact in the collective decision-making process. The findings indicate that intelligent interaction among religion, science, culture, and technology can lead to sustainable coexistence, balanced development, and a redefinition of the relationship between tradition and modernity. Finally, new research avenues in interdisciplinary interactions are proposed, including the impact of emerging technologies on the structure of religious beliefs and models of intercultural coexistence in multi-religious societies.
Mohammad Soleimanitabar; Amirmohammad Gamini
Abstract
With the arrival of modern sciences in Iran during the Qajar period, some leaders of the Shaykhīyya, especially Muhammad Karīm Khān Kirmānī, wrote several treatises criticizing and rejecting the modern astronomy and the heliocentric theory. While no rejection of the modern astronomy by the Uṣūlī ...
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With the arrival of modern sciences in Iran during the Qajar period, some leaders of the Shaykhīyya, especially Muhammad Karīm Khān Kirmānī, wrote several treatises criticizing and rejecting the modern astronomy and the heliocentric theory. While no rejection of the modern astronomy by the Uṣūlī Shia scholars has been observed during this period. This difference in approach is probably rooted in the way of interpreting astronomical hadiths as well as the detailed metaphysical belief system that emerged from the time of Shaykh Aḥmad Aḥsá’í. The leaders of the Shaykhīyya had a different understanding of cosmological and astrological hadiths than the Uṣūlī scholars. Unlike ʿallāmah Majlisī, who in Bihār al-Anwār considers cosmological hadiths to be scientifically unreliable and astrological hadiths to be precautionary dissimulation (Taqīyyih), Muhammad Karīm Khān Kirmānī interprets the hadiths of the first group in a way that is consistent with Ptolemaic astronomy and considers astrological hadiths to be valid. He also believed, following Shaykh Aḥmad Aḥsá’í, in a hierarchical chain of being, according to which the farther away beings are from the source of grace (heaven), the denser and slower they become. In addition, he believed that the world of "Hūrqalyā", which is the intermediary between the world of Mulk and the world of Malakūt, is located the farthest from the Earth. All this led to the conclusion that the Earth is at the center according to the Ptolemaic-Aristotelian astronomical system.
Abstract
Science is a systematic human effort to understand the physical world. Scientific activity is carried out by humans and is meaningless in a human vacuum. But the immediate question is why humans seek knowledge of nature? Science itself cannot provide an answer to this question.Science is a systematic ...
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Science is a systematic human effort to understand the physical world. Scientific activity is carried out by humans and is meaningless in a human vacuum. But the immediate question is why humans seek knowledge of nature? Science itself cannot provide an answer to this question.Science is a systematic human effort to understand the physical world. Scientific activity is carried out by humans and is meaningless in a human vacuum. But the immediate question is why humans seek knowledge of nature? Science itself cannot provide an answer to this question.Science is a systematic human effort to understand the physical world. Scientific activity is carried out by humans and is meaningless in a human vacuum. But the immediate question is why humans seek knowledge of nature? Science itself cannot provide an answer to this question.
