Science and Religion Studies

Interpreting the Existence of God Using Artificial Intelligence Responses (Study subject: ChatGPT )

Mohammad Amin Torabi; Masoumeh Sahraei

Volume 15, Issue 2 , February 2025

https://doi.org/10.30465/srs.2024.47252.2108

Abstract

AbstractThroughout history, one of the greatest intellectual and philosophical challenges humanities has faced is the question of the existence of God. With technological advancements and the emergence of artificial intelligence, an opportunity has now arisen to approach this question from a new angle, ... Read More AbstractThroughout history, one of the greatest intellectual and philosophical challenges humanities has faced is the question of the existence of God. With technological advancements and the emergence of artificial intelligence, an opportunity has now arisen to approach this question from a new angle, utilizing the advanced capabilities of artificial intelligence. The research methodology of this study is applied in terms of its purpose and exploratory (simulation) in nature. In the first phase, it continued with responses from the intelligent system ChatGPT until reaching the saturation point of answers. In the second phase, using thematic analysis, each of the responses was semantically coded and placed in common themes. The findings were categorized and interpreted in four sections: philosophical, religious, perceptual, and scientific. The results indicate that, from a philosophical perspective, artificial intelligence has the capability to contemplate the concept of the existence of God. Religiously, it analyzes and interprets religious texts and concepts with precision. Perceptually, it has the ability to understand and recognize various types of experiences, feelings, and thoughtful reflections on God, analyzing and reconstructing these perception ns based on existing patterns in the data. Scientifically, it precisely presents the intersections and scientific relationships regarding existence and creation, exploration, and ultimate results.Keywords: Philosophy of God’s Existence, Proof of God’s Existence, Artificial Intelligence and God, ChatGPT Extended AbstractIntroductionThe concept of God has played a central role in shaping human civilization, whether through religious practice, ethical frameworks, or existential contemplation. Believers often argue that acknowledging a higher power confers meaning and moral direction, while skeptics challenge the coherence or necessity of such a being. Technological breakthroughs in AI now present an unprecedented opportunity to re-examine and synthesize the vast corpus of human thought around God’s existence. Specifically, ChatGPT draws upon extensive datasets encompassing philosophy, theology, history, and science, enabling the creation of structured, comprehensive answers to questions that have occupied thinkers for centuries. Yet the question remains: Does AI shed new light on the debate, or merely reorganize existing ideas? This research addresses that query by documenting ChatGPT’s responses to systematically designed prompts about God’s existence, scrutinizing the arguments produced, and evaluating how these align with or differ from traditional scholarly discourse.Materials & MethodsWe adopted an exploratory, simulation-based methodology, divided into two phases. In the first phase, a series of questions—probing both the affirmative and negative positions on God’s existence—were posed to ChatGPT in iterative rounds. The process continued until thematic saturation was verified by a panel of ten experts in philosophy, theology, and cognitive science who reviewed each AI-generated response for novelty and consistency. Once the experts deemed that no substantially new themes emerged, the data was consolidated for analysis. In the second phase, we conducted a thematic coding of the AI’s answers, labeling distinct arguments, examples, and references to philosophical and religious traditions. This coding was subjected to peer validation, ensuring that at least 70% of the experts agreed on the classification of each theme. The final dataset was then arranged into four major categories—philosophical, religious, perceptual, and scientific—and subsequently evaluated to illustrate the depth and range of AI-generated content on God’s existence.Discussion & ResultThe analysis demonstrates that ChatGPT consistently reproduces a broad array of arguments commonly found in classical philosophy, including cosmological reasoning positing a first cause, teleological claims highlighting design in nature, and moral arguments linking ethical absolutes to a divine lawgiver. Additionally, the AI presents counterpoints such as the problem of evil, the apparent redundancy of God in scientific explanations, and the diversity of religious traditions as challenges to the notion of a singular, all-powerful deity. On religious themes, the data indicates that ChatGPT can summarize doctrinal perspectives from multiple faiths, addressing concepts of God as Creator, the role of prophets, and scriptural evidence for and against the existence of a supreme being. In the perceptual domain, ChatGPT highlights personal experiences, crisis moments, and a search for spiritual fulfillment as important influences on belief in God. This includes references to cultural and social cohesion, as well as the psychological comfort that believers often derive from trusting a higher power. From a scientific standpoint, ChatGPT integrates ideas from physics, cosmology, and evolutionary biology, noting that while empirical methods can describe how reality operates, they often remain silent on why reality exists in the first place. Significantly, the AI model remains neutral, clarifying that its responses are drawn from comprehensive but ultimately human-authored sources. This neutrality underscores that any final judgment on God’s existence transcends purely algorithmic logic or data-driven aggregation of viewpoints. The result is an instructive illustration of AI’s ability to amalgamate disparate strands of intellectual tradition while reminding us that existential and spiritual truths may extend beyond the realm of computational discovery.Conclusion In summary, this research reveals that AI, particularly ChatGPT, provides valuable insights into the longstanding debate on God’s existence by assembling and articulating a wide range of arguments gleaned from philosophical texts, religious doctrines, and scientific hypotheses. The thematic diversity detected in the AI’s output illustrates both the richness of human reflection on God and the limitations of seeking absolute certainty through computational means. While ChatGPT can serve as a powerful tool for scholars and students to explore the landscape of arguments around divinity, it does not claim to resolve ultimate metaphysical queries. The study underscores the reality that questions of faith, transcendence, and meaning remain intimately personal and may resist definitive resolution by purely data-driven, logical processes. Rather, AI’s role may best be viewed as a catalyst for deeper inquiry, prompting renewed reflection and dialogue. Future research could refine AI’s capacity to contextualize theological arguments and incorporate more nuanced cultural or linguistic subtleties, yet the core insight stands: the final answer on God’s existence likely resides within the lived experience, contemplative reasoning, and open-hearted seeking of each individual.

Sympathy of Nature, Cosmos and Divine Realm in Zosimos Spiritual Alchemy

Volume 15, Issue 1 , September 2024, , Pages 35-63

https://doi.org/10.30465/srs.2024.49144.2155

Abstract

AbstractSome historians of science believe that alchemy is a part of religious practice and rituals, and as a result, its history is cited under the history of religions. Along with this belief, the psychologist Carl Gustav Jung believes that alchemy is part of the history of psychology, which aims to ... Read More AbstractSome historians of science believe that alchemy is a part of religious practice and rituals, and as a result, its history is cited under the history of religions. Along with this belief, the psychologist Carl Gustav Jung believes that alchemy is part of the history of psychology, which aims to discovery the complex and deep structure of the human psyche. Critics of these two approaches claim that religious and psychological concepts have not been used as much as material and experimental (laboratory) actions and practices have been used in alchemy, so it cannot be considered as a part of history of religions or psychology. In these historiographical approaches, there are many indications and references to the alchemical theories of the Greco-Egyptian period, one of the most important and perhaps the most documented of them is the theoretical framework of Zosimos, which is called "spiritual alchemy". Reviewing this framework shows that Zosimos' alchemical theories can be somewhat controversial for all three approaches. In this article, while looking at the basic concepts in this alchemical framework, the relationship between nature (matter) and supernatural powers and the interactions of matter-human-divinity have been studied. KeywordsSpiritual Alchemy, Zosimos, Cosmic Sympathy, Nature, Divinity, Epoptics. IntroductionThe centrality of the concept of soul in alchemical writings attributed to Zosimos has caused some historians to named his alchemy as spiritual alchemy. However, the issue is raised whether the meaning of spiritual here is simply referring to the duality of soul and body, which is also used to explain the structure of metals, or beyond that, this concept refers to vegetable, animal and human’ one? Therefore, the alchemy of Zosimos can be considered a spiritual practice, which through the understanding of the similarity between the soul embedded in metals and the soul of plants and humans - especially the human soul - seeks to provide an explanation of the process of changes in the material world of metals as well as changes in the human soul. In other words, Zosimos believes that at the same time as the change in the body of a metal that occurs according to the laws of nature, not only its soul also changes according to supernatural laws, but the soul and sprite of alchemist also changes. As a result, it can be said that Zosimos' alchemical theory is not only a theory based on the principles and rules of the natural sciences of his era, but it is a set of interactions between supernatural, religious, philosophical and non-physical concepts with the natural components of an alchemical practice. According to some contemporary historians of alchemy, such as Grimes, Zosimos, unlike other Greco-Egyptian alchemists, prescribes a philosophical lifestyle for his colleagues, which includes those moral values that the path Reaching them is through the path of self-change, which is achieved by contemplation and self-refining it. In fact, Zosimos draws a cycle in which the alchemist goes from the material nature to the spiritual state and returns from the spirituality to the material nature. If the alchemist enters this cycle, he will answer the question of how metals reveal the presence of divine while refining his soul. The connection between the understanding of the presence of divine in the body of metals and the explanation of the interpretations resulting from it, which is subject to various natural and unnatural factors, is the core of Zosimos's claim in his alchemical doctrine plan, which dimensions and main components are examined in this article.Materials and methodsThis article is a library study, in order to organize and write it, several books and articles in the field of Greco-Egyptian alchemy in general and Zosimos alchemy in particular have been studied and criticized. Some of these articles dealt with the technical and alchemical aspects of Zosimos's works, while others focused on the philosophical and historiographical aspects of Zosimos's works. Discussion and ResultsThe role of the incorporeal component, which Zosimos considers to be pneuma, is more important for him in alchemical processes. This component has a completely material and physical behavior in that part of the alchemical process, which is the material part, but it exceeds the level of material behavior in the area of non-physical changes of Zosimos. Of course, his idea of non-physical changes refers to the same coloring vapor, which in his explanations is directly related to the human agent or the alchemist. Zosimos considers this vapor to be the coloring pneuma in which the metal must be immersed in order to accept the new color, which corresponds to baptism. But reaching this pneuma is not only a function of material actions, but also a function of the alchemist's mind and states. On the other hand, Zosimos considers the two concepts of race and cosmic sympathy which were derived from the system of creation of the cosmos (Kosmopiia) as two basic concepts that refer to the natural methods of making tincture in Jewish religious texts. Based on this and relying on metaphorical concepts including the notion of sacrifice, he tries to explain the sympathy in the natural and unnatural areas of the world. The product of this thinking is that he considers alchemy as a theurgy that uses the divinity in alchemical operations in a hierarchical system. ConclusionThere are three historical viewpoints about Zosimos' alchemy; The first view considers areas of his alchemy as a part of the history of science. The second view holds that his alchemy is under the history of psychology, and the third view considers Zosimos' alchemy to be originally a part of the history of religions. Besides examining these three points of view, we can also think of another idea. An idea that looks after his strong social concerns in a way that considers serious moral considerations as the basis of his alchemy.

Relationship between the Architecture of Cyberspace and Ethics

Volume 15, Issue 1 , September 2024, , Pages 245-271

https://doi.org/10.30465/srs.2024.49130.2154

Abstract

AbstractThe issue of this article is whether it is possible to regulate users' behavior without referring to ethics, and solely based on the architecture of virtual space? In this regard, three approaches are examined: 1- Adequacy of cyberspace architecture without the need for ethics 2- Compliance of ... Read More AbstractThe issue of this article is whether it is possible to regulate users' behavior without referring to ethics, and solely based on the architecture of virtual space? In this regard, three approaches are examined: 1- Adequacy of cyberspace architecture without the need for ethics 2- Compliance of the code with the principles of ethics 3- Necessity of hard ethics (before cyberspace architecture) and soft ethics (after architecture). In this context, the views of Lawrence Lessig (first approach), Richard Spinello (second approach) and Luciano Floridi (third approach) are discussed. In order to evaluate the aforementioned approaches, two criteria of "theoretical acceptability" (the requirement that the preferred view must be defensible based on the moral theories) and "technological acceptability" (the requirement that preferred view must be executable from the engineering point of view). Therefore a combinatory view is defended, which is operationally based on the architecture (code) of cyberspace, but from the theoretical aspect, it also depends on Ethical principles (hard ethics) and rely on case-by-case ethical judgments of experts (soft ethics). Keywords: Cyberspace Architecture, Digital Ethics, Lessig, Spinello, Floridi. IntroductionJohn Caiazza (2005), emphasizing the role of technology in secularization, coined the term "technosecularism." He argues that technosecularism implicitly includes an ethical theory according to which "what technology can provide" should be utilized without regard to ethical rules. It seems that Lawrence Lessig's approach (1997, 1998a, 1999, 2001, 2003, 2006) to cyberspace can be interpreted as a technosecularist perspective. In Lessig’s view "code is law" and there is no role for ethics in regulating behavior. The issue addressed in this article is whether it is possible to regulate user behavior solely based on the architecture of cyberspace (code), without referring to ethics. In this article, in addition to Lessig's approach, alternative views from Spinello and Floridi are also presented and examined. By defining two criteria, "theoretical acceptability" and "technological feasibility," it is shown that none of the aforementioned perspectives are adequate, and therefore, a combined viewpoint is ultimately defended. Materials and MethodsThis article is a theoretical and philosophical research that is based on a qualitative research, which involves examining and analyzing different concepts and perspectives in the reliable sources of the literature. Discussion and ResultsLawrence Lessig (1998b) analyzes four regulators that influence an individual's behavior in society through his "pathetic dot theory": law, norms, market, and architecture, which control behavior through punishment, stigma, price, and physical burdens, respectively. Lessig correspondingly discusses four regulators of individual behavior in cyberspace that correspond to these regulators, with the main focus being the latter, the architecture of cyberspace. He believes that the hardware, software, and protocols that constitute cyberspace regulate it, and this architecture of cyberspace (code) is the law of cyberspace. Although Lessig speaks of "norms," he does not introduce "ethics" in the sense of universal norms or values. This merit is evident in the approaches of Richard Spinello and Luciano Floridi (at two different levels).Spinello (2001, 2002, 2011, 2014, 2021), regarding the regulation and ethics of cyberspace, considers Lessig's model of the four regulators to be inspiring but insufficient. He argues that ethical principles should be viewed governing the four regulators Lessig considers, rather than at their level. For instance, the architecture of cyberspace (code) should also be based on ethical principles and written under their guidance. What Spinello (2021) emphasizes are the "ideals and ethical principles" that are universal and constant, rather than relative and variable "cultural norms".Nevertheless, Spinello believes that since the internet lacks a "physical center," it also has no "moral center" that can be held accountable for the flow of information in the network. A more far-reaching perspective on the relationship between the cyberspace and ethics should be sought in Floridi's approach.Floridi (2018a, 2018b) considers ethics to be essential both before and after the formulation of the regulating laws. He refers to the ethical principles used in regulating and structuring the digital space as "hard ethics." Hard ethics essentially consists of the rules we consider as right and wrong or moral imperatives when discussing values, rights, duties, responsibilities, and so on. However, since general laws and regulations cannot cover all details, in cases of failure or ambiguity of general rules in specific judgments, individuals or organizations must rely on "soft ethics" to decide what role they should play in what Floridi calls the "infosphere." Floridi (2006) defines the term infosphere (in correspondence with biosphere) as "the entire informational environment created by all informational entities," which includes the informational entities themselves, their characteristics, their interactions, and so forth, and also encompasses "offline and analog information spaces." Therefore, Floridi's approach represents a kind of interweaving of ethics (both hard and soft) and the architecture of cyberspace (code), as he believes that ethical principles are not outside the legal system but are implicitly embedded as integral components of the law. In fact, law is shaped and constrained by the conduit of ethics rather than being solely dictated by it. ConclusionIn response to the question of whether it is possible to regulate user behavior solely based on the architecture of cyberspace and without reference to ethics, the views of Lawrence Lessig, Richard Spinello, and Luciano Floridi represent a spectrum of approaches. To compare these perspectives, we define two independent criteria: "theoretical acceptability" (in the philosophy of ethics) and "technological feasibility" (in engineering):- Theoretical acceptability refers to the requirement that the chosen perspective must be defensible under the philosophy of ethics based on ethical theories.- Technological feasibility refers to the requirement that the chosen perspective must be realizable under engineering in terms of operational and practical implementation.The harmony between Lessig's and Spinello's approaches is that both are focused on the architecture of cyberspace (code) for implementation and operation. Therefore, these two approaches have greater clarity regarding the technical-engineering language and the potential for operationalization, meeting the criterion of "technological feasibility," compared to Floridi's approach. On the other hand, Floridi's approach surpasses over the other two approaches in terms of "theoretical acceptability" because it emphasizes both "ethical principles" and "case-based judgments," which are core elements of normative ethics and applied ethics. For Floridi's approach to be operationalized in the engineering phase, it requires attention to the other two approaches and a focus on the architecture of cyberspace (code). The implementation of Floridi's perspective regarding the details of case-based ethical judgments (soft ethics) in regulating cyberspace depends on the involvement of an ethicist in the field of cyberspace science and engineering.

The Parisian Condemnation of 1277 and its scientific and theological results

Volume 15, Issue 1 , September 2024, , Pages 1-33

https://doi.org/10.30465/srs.2024.47793.2115

Abstract

Abstract: This paper is about the condemnation of 1277 that was issued by the bishop of Paris (Etienne Tempier) against the Aristotelian, Thomistic and Averroist theological teachings. This condemnation was initially aimed at protecting the doctrine of God's absolute power and critique of the philosophical ... Read More Abstract: This paper is about the condemnation of 1277 that was issued by the bishop of Paris (Etienne Tempier) against the Aristotelian, Thomistic and Averroist theological teachings. This condemnation was initially aimed at protecting the doctrine of God's absolute power and critique of the philosophical and theological reasoning about God, but later it led to new developments that were outside of the initial goals of its founders and were in conflict with it. This research, using an analytical approach, tries to provide an analysis of the backgrounds and philosophical and theological disagreements that led to the condemnation of 1277, and to present a map of its conceptual scope. Then, we have discussed some of the epistemological and theological implications of this condemnation, among which the doctrine of God's absolute power is the most prominent and one of the main goals of this condemnation. But we have also raised and analyzed the long-term implications such as nominalism, secularism, and the development of modern science and its departure from the Platonic perspective, and it has shown that these are hidden implications that were not only unintended by the founders of the condemnation but also in conflict with their main lines of thought. Keywords: Condemnation of 1277, Absolute power of God, Nominalism, Modern Science, Secularism, Latin Averroists, Thomas Aquinas. Introduction: In 1277, Etienne Tempier, the bishop of Paris, was ordered by the Roman Catholic Church to examine the philosophical and theological teachings presented at the University of Paris and prevent the intellectual deviations of its teachers and students. Then on March 7, 1277, Tempier issued a condemnation against the philosophical and theological teachings of the Aristotelians of his time. This declaration was later known as the Condemnation of 1277. In this article, we have discussed the historical background of this condemnation since the beginning of the 13th century, its activists in the late Middle Ages, and also the analysis of its content. Then we have analyzed its theological, scientific and philosophical results and implications. Some of these results were not initially predicted by Tempier and his colleagues but have occurred over time. Materials and Methods: Documentary analysis of this condemnation was the first step we have taken in this paper. We have examined both the content structure of its introduction and the content of the 219 condemned philosophical and theological propositions attached to it and then we have provided a secondary analysis of the results of issuing this condemnation. Discussion: In the introduction of the condemnation of 1277, two major objections were made to the teachers and students of the University of Paris and their curriculum: 1. Violation of the law; This probably refers to the rules laid down in the regulations and curricula that the Church defined for the University of Paris in 1231 during the reign of Pope Gregory IX. and 2. violation of the principles of the Catholic faith; The principles that the 219 deviant propositions attached to this condemnation violate, and the university president has been asked to inspect these violations within 5 days and find a solution for them. Although "students and teachers of the University of Paris" have been condemned in the condemnation of 1277, in fact the opinions of three groups of philosophers and theologians have been condemned in this condemnation: 1. Latin Averroists, 2. Thomas Aquinas, medieval Thomists and Scholastic Theologians, as well as 3. Muslim Aristotelian philosophers who transmitted Aristotelian teachings and some Islamic theological teachings to medieval thinkers through their interpretations and translations. The most important charge against these three categories of people was that they presented a reasonable and lawful image of God and his action in nature and in relation to man and the world; In this way, these philosophers and theologians, wanted to violate the Absolute Power of God and show it as conditional. In the list attached to this declaration, 219 propositions and doctrines have been mentioned and condemned. According to the research done by Hissette (‏Hissette, 1977, p.1), 79 propositions are explicitly mentioned in the works of some or all of the above three categories of thinkers; 72 propositions are similar and close to some teachings and opinions of these philosophers and theologians and 68 statements are basically not found in the works of these philosophers. If we want to make an optimistic judgment about the 68 recent doctrines that did not have actual believers, we must say that the founders of this condemnation wanted to prevent future people from believing in these bad doctrines; But the pessimistic view is that the condemnation of 1277, by exaggerating, intends to make the danger of these philosophers appear more serious and beyond what it is. Anyway, two things are certain: one is that some of these doctrines that have been condemned were not popular at all in the works of Aristotelians or other works of that time and secondly, it is not possible to find a specific philosopher, school or circle of thought that believed in all these teachings at the same time. Conclusion: Some of the epistemological, Scientific and theological elements of the condemnation of 1277 that we analyzed in this article are as follows: 1. This condemnation clearly favors a dogmatic reading over a rational approach to the Bible. The intellectual basis of this condemnation was sometimes the theological attitude of Augustinian thinkers in the Middle Ages and sometimes it was similar to the purely dogmatic and superficial approach that existed in the anti-rational behavior of advanced thinkers such as Tertullian. 2. Focusing on an absolutist, capricious, unpredictable and lawless image of God's behavior, under the pretext of not violating "God's absolute power", is one of the most important examples of the previous point. 3. From the point of view of Tempir and his colleagues, one of the essentials of believing in the "absolute power of God" and that nothing is impossible for him is the doctrine of the multiplicity of created worlds; This means accepting the existence of other created worlds whose natural laws and metaphysical rules governing them are different from the laws and rules governing our world, and this has no contradiction with the basic principles of reason. 4. The method that Tempir and his colleagues took to defend the doctrine of the "Absolute Power of God" theoretically led to a naïve ontological and theological nominalism and the negation of universals and natures. In this way, God's action does not fall under any general rules and instead, it is unpredictable. 5. From the point of view of Pierre Duhem, the condemnation of 1277 can be considered as the beginning of modern sciences, especially because it freed natural science and cosmology from the Aristotelian and Scholastic views (Duhem, 2018, p.2) and then it opened the way for new hypotheses and attitudes in the field of science. 6. After the condemnation of 1277, theology and philosophy (which included science at that time) were gradually separated from each other. This happened not only in the University of Paris but also in other medieval universities. The cause of this separation was the separation of the philosophers from the theologians who rejected and excommunicated them. This independence led to the appearance of an early form of secularism in the Christian community. Here, the founders of the declaration of 1277 not only did not foresee the fourth to sixth points, but the fifth and sixth points were actually in conflict with their original goals and against their basic teachings.

Interpreting the Existence of God Using Artificial Intelligence Responses (Study subject: ChatGPT )

Volume 15, Issue 2 , February 2025

https://doi.org/10.30465/srs.2024.47252.2108

Abstract

Investigation of the Ethical Agency of Artificial General Intelligence

Volume 15, Issue 1 , September 2024, , Pages 125-151

https://doi.org/10.30465/srs.2024.49282.2162

Abstract

This paper examines the ethical agency of artificial general intelligence (AGI). In many studies, the ethical agency of AGI is divided into four categories: 1) Ethical-impact agents, 2) Implicit ethical agents, 3) Explicit ethical agents, and 4) Full ethical agents. This paper will deploy a critical-analytical ... Read More

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Interpreting the Existence of God Using Artificial Intelligence Responses (Study subject: ChatGPT )

Abstract

Sympathy of Nature, Cosmos and Divine Realm in Zosimos Spiritual Alchemy

Abstract

Relationship between the Architecture of Cyberspace and Ethics

Abstract

The Parisian Condemnation of 1277 and its scientific and theological results

Abstract

Interpreting the Existence of God Using Artificial Intelligence Responses (Study subject: ChatGPT )

Abstract

Investigation of the Ethical Agency of Artificial General Intelligence

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